


mmB 

>4llif;r-; 







PUBLISHERS' REMARKS. 



Patrons do well to always remember that there are three distinct 
departments to our business, Home Amusements, Kindergarten and 
School Devices and Lithographic Engraving and Printing. We have 
been the leading Lithographers of our section for more than thirty 
years. We keep a corps of artists constantly employed in making 
original designs and have every facility for doing the best work in 
this line, both in colors and black aud white, for conmiercial houses, 
publishers, schools and colleges. We particularly solicit orders for 
Diplomas to be given to the graduating classes of grammar, high and 
normal schools. ' ' ■ 

We issue a variety of pamphlets which are intended 't<i' make the 
people familiar with our different undertakings. First on the list is 
our Educational Catalogue of eighty pages, which should be in the 
hands of every teacher from the kindergarten to the high school, aud 
every dealer in books, stationery and school supplies throughout tlie 
United States who intends to hold the trade of teachers and school 
ofHcers. Next comes a special catalogue of apparatus for teaching 
Elementary Science, and then one of those "Books for Teachers" 
which we publish. Then there is the "little green book" call<;d "The 
IJradley Color Scheme," which describes our ai)paratus and material 
for color teaching, together with "Our Little Story," an illustiatcd 
booklet giving the history of the concern since 18G0. AH this litfni- 
ture we freely place at the disposal of our friends. 

For a notice of TiiK KINDERGARTEN NEWS see last page of cnv< i 
MTLTON BlIADLEY CO., 

SrRlNGFIE^,I>^JIU^^SS. 



COLOR 



IN THE 



KINDERGARTEN 



A MANUAL OF THE THEORY OF COLOR 

AND THE PRACTICAL USE OF 

COLOR MATERIAL IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 



BY MILTON BRADLEY. 



IvlILTON BRAIDLEY CO., ^ '-^ "T 

Si'RINGFIELD, MaSS. 






a 

-^ 



Cf)PTRIGHTKl), IS!):?, 

By Mll.rOX BRADLEY CO., 
Springfield, Mass. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Froebel made no mistake when he inchided color as a part of 
the first material used in his system of elementary education. 
The realm of color is universal ; it is the first thing that attracts 
the child, winning his eye before he pays any attention to form. 
A bright color is noticed almost as soon as a peculiar noise. 

All color comes from the sunlight and is contained in it. 
When Sir Isaac Newton discovered that a beam of sunlight 
could be sepai'ated into an indefinite number of colors by re- 
fraction he opened the way for the first step in color instruction. 

In the First Gift Frojbel presents the whole of color, so 
arranged that it may be separated into its most natural and 
scientific component parts. 

He was wise in selecting six colors for this gift, instead of 
the seven which had been designated by Newton and generally 
adopted in the popular consideration of the spectrum. 

Very little color enters into the Kindergarten Gifts, except 
the First. But in the Occupations color has an important place, 
being represented in the papers, sticks, thread, silk, worsted, 
beads, etc. 

The most valuable color instruction is connected with par- 
quetry and weaving. If a child could be in a kindergarten for 
two or three years much valuable work in paper cutting might 
be done. In the cardboard sewing some good color teaching 
can be begun, but the color surfaces are so small that the effect 
cannot be as striking as are the results in using the papers. 

No exact work can be done in color with the sticks and beads 
because the natui-al color of the wood affects the dyes, making 
them dull, and the use of any material except wood must in- 
volve too great cost. 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

Kiudergartuers are pleased to remember that elementary in- 
striiotioii ill form aud color, so far as it has been pursued in 
any logical Avay, originated witii Frcebel and has been con- 
tinued in the kindergarten since his time without essential 
change. With kindergartners it is unnecessaiy to argue the 
question why we need to teach children anything about color in 
these days when we have to teach them so many, many things. 
Because kindergartners understand that color more "than any- 
thing else, with the possible exception of drawing, is the con- 
necting link between art and the sciences they readily admit 
that we should teach it to the children for the pleasure that a 
correct knowledge of color will give them through life and the 
profit it will afford them. 

As soon as he began to manufacture kindergarten material, 
nearly twenty-five years ago, the writer faced the difficulties 
in the way of a clear understanding of color aud any attempt to 
teach the essential facts about it. He found it impossible in 
buying colored papers from" the paper mills or Avarehouses to 
match the lots previously purchased with any degree of satis- 
faction or to insure his customers that any color he had fur- 
nished them could be duplicated. There were no generally ac- 
cepted standards of color and every man set up standards to 
suit himself, if it ever occured to him that any were necessary. 

It was a realization of these facts that led the autiior to study 
the color question in its different bearings and to ultimately 
write and publish "Color in the Schoolroom." Since the ap- 
pearance of that book the subject has been further developed, 
and it is with a view o"f putting the latest discoveries before the 
kindergartners in a condensed form aud of providing them with 
a guide for the special color work involved in the Gifts and 
Occupations that the author ventures to offer them this little 
supplementary book. In this connection he wishes to gratefully 
acknowledge the enthusiastic help in the experimental study of 
color which he has received through a term of years from 
teachers of every grade, from the kindergarten to the university. 

Springfield, Mass., May 1, 1893. 



The Theory of Color. 



TN ORDER to think, talk and write about any subject we 
must have a language or nomenclature by which thoughts 
concerning that subject may be expressed. Standards of color 
corresponding to definite names are a pre-requisite to a nomen- 
clature of colors. Hitherto all statements about color have 
been exceedingly vague, because of the lack of names with 
which to accurately define the different colors. The solar spec- 
trum, discovered by Sir Isaac Newton two hundred years ago, 
contains absolutely unchangeable standards on which to base 
an intelligent nomenclature of colors; but until recently no prac- 
tical use has been made of them, because while writers on art 
since Newton's day have referred to the solar spectrum as be- 
ing nature's chart of colors, they have also proceeded to set up 
for themselves charts which they have claimed to be superior to 
that provided by nature. 

In the solar spectrum there are six colors which all normally- 
sighted persons readily select as clearly distinguishable from 
the others, and they have been named by common consent red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. Just why Newton saw 
and named seven colors instead of six, introducing indigo be- 
tween the blue and the violet, is not altogether clear. But it is 
now stated on scientific authority that one person in a thousand 
seems to have an abnormally delicate sense of color which leads 
him to select a particular violet blue as having the same or 
nearly the same defiuiteness that characterizes the six colors 
named above, which fact suggests that probably Newton be- 
longed to this class, as he would not have named a color that 
he did not clearly see. But whatever explanation may be given 
for Newton's selection of a seventh color, it is now maintained 



6 COLOR jy THE KINDERGARTEN. 

b}- all Avho have given the subject careful thought that tlie six 
colors furuish a conveuieut and sutticieut number of standards 
for all practical purposes. 

The Theory of Sir David Brewster. 

ITntil very recently the Brewster or red, yellow and blue 
theory has been the only thing approaching a system accepted 
by artists and colorists, all else being relegated to the realms of 
taste and feeling. Both Newton and lirewster believed that 
the colors of the solar spectrum were produced by the over- 
lapping of three sets of colored rays, red, yellow and blue. The 
red ra^'s at one end were thought to mix with the yellow rays 
to make tiie orange, and on the other side of the yellow the blue 
rays combined with the yellow to produce green. On the same 
principle in material colors the orange, green and purple were sup- 
posed to be made by the mixing of red, yellow and l)lue pigments. 

The whole of this theory is practically embraced in the state- 
ment that there are three primary colors, red, yellow and blue ; 
that by the mixtures of these three primaries the secondary 
colors, orange, green and violet, may be produced, and then 
again the secondaries may be combined in pairs to form the 
tertiaries, citrine, russet and olive. The advocates of this 
scheme further assert that the secondaries are complementary 
to the primaries, the green to the red, the violet to the yellow 
and the orange to the blue. 

But it can now be easily proved that there is nothing of truth 
in this l^rewster theory, either as applied to the science of color 
or the practical use of .pigments. It is at the present time well 
known that the orange in the solar spectrum is not produced by 
the overlapping or intermixing of red and yellow rays, but that 
each separate color or hue in the spectrum has its own wave 
length and is as much a primary as the red or yellow. It is also 
equally true that in the pigmentary colors the red, yellow and 
blue will not produce by mixture an orange, green or violet ap- 
proximating the other three in tone or purity. 

In the system of color instruction advocated in these pages 
the solar spectrum is accepted as furnishing the standards, but 



COLOR m THE KINDERGARTEN. 7 

instead of selecting three primaries, red, yellow and blue, six 
primaries or standards, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and 
violet are chosen, which with white and black furnish the means 
for producing scientifically all other colors. Then it will be seen 
that the three primaries of Brewster are here accepted and defi- 
nitely determined, and to them are added three others from the 
same source as that from which he claimed to derive his. Con- 
sequently we present the six colors to the child as original stand- 
ards, instead of teaching him that there are three which must be 
combined to make the three others, and thus he is taught the 
trutli aud not something that will have to be unlearned later. 
The Young=Helmholtz Theory. 
Opposed to the Brewster theory of color is the Young-Helm- 
holtz theory, which is quite generally accepted by the scientists 
of the present time. According to this theory all color in nature 
is contained in sunlight, which is practically white light. When 
a beam of sunlight, admitted into a darkened room, passes 
through a glass prism it is spread out like a fan into a band of 



beautiful colors, beginning at one end with a dark red, grad- 
ually changing to a brighter red, which runs into an orange and 
then through yellow, green and blue to violet, which gradually 
fades away into darkness. This is the solar spectrum and the 
effect is represented by the accompanying diagram. 

The explanation of this phenomnon is that the beam of sun- 
light is composed of a great number of different kinds of rays, 
which in passing through the prism are refracted or bent from 



8 COLOB IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

their direct course, tiud some are beut more than others ; the 
red least of all, and the violet most. It is supposed that light 
is propagated by waves or uudulatious, iu au extremely rare 
substance termed ether, which is supposed to occupy all space 
and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be similar 
to sound waves in the air, or the ripples on the smooth sur- 
face of a pond when a pebble is thrown into it. 

Because so many of the phenomena of light can be satis- 
factorily explained by this theory it has been very generally 
adopted by the best scientists. The amount that rays of light 
are refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is 
in proportion to the nuinber of waves or undulations per second, 
and iu inverse proportion to the length of the waves. The 
red waves are refracted the least and are the longest, while the 
violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest. 

The wave lengths of our six standards are approximately iu 
the proportions of the following numbers : Red, 6600 ; Orange, 
6100; Yellow, 5800; Green, 5200; Blue, 4700 ; Violet, 4200 ; 
these figures representing ten millionths of a millimeter. 

While, as before stated, the adherents of the Brewster theory 
profess to believe that there are three primary colors, red, 
yellow and blue, from which all the other colors can be made, 
the scientists, adopting the Helmholtz theory, claim that in sun- 
light there are three primary colors, red, green and violet, from 
which all other colors in nature may be produced, or in other 
words that there are three color perceptions in the eye, which 
combine to make alL other color effects. 

Outside the realm of pure science it is not a matter of interest 
whether all color in nature is or may be produced from any 
three color perceptions, because it is easily demonstrated that 
from no tln-ee pigmentary colors can all other colors be made, 
and in the arts and sciences all artificial color effects are se- 
cured by the use of pigments. Therefore because with any 
three standards the results of pigmentary combinations are very 
unlike the corresponding combinations of the same standards 
in colored light this theory is of no practical value. 



CO I, OR IN THE KINDERGABTEN. 9 

The Standards Must Be Chosen From 
The Solar Spectrum. 

But if six colors are selected from the sohir spectrum aud the 
best possible imitations of them made in pigments, as for ex- 
ample, in colored papers, these colors may be combined with 
results substantially similar to the effects obtained by corre- 
sponding combiniitions of spectrum colors, except that as the 
pigmentary colors of the papers fall very far below the spec- 
trum colors in purity and illumination, so their combinations 
uuist give results correspondingly below the same combiuatitjus 
of the spectrum colors. 

Having already provided the six pigmentary colors just meu- 
tioued, with white aud black, as standards from which to form 
and name other colors in terms of the standards, some means 
for measuring the quantity of each color used becomes ueces- 
sary. It is impossible to obtain these quantities by measuring 
or weighing the pigments, because, although the pigment may 
be weighed or measured, the amount of the color effect cannot 
be determined in ounces and pints. For example, if we wish to 
produce and definitely distinguish a special color between greea 
and yellow, it is necessary that we have some means for ascer- 
taining the amount of green and yellow entering into its com- 
position, in order to give it a name of any practical value. But, 
ver}' fortunately, it has been discovered that if on a white disk 
of card or other substance sectors of two or more alternating 
colors are painted, and then the disk placed on a rapidly rotating 
spindle, the several colors merge into one color which is the 
combined effect of the several sectors painted on the disk. It 
is also true that the color etfect is determined by the relative 
number of degrees which measure each of the colors. 

If a white disk is divided into four equal parts by two diame- 
ters at right angles to each other, and three of these sectors are 
painted with the standard yellow aud one of the parts with the 
standard green, rotation will produce a green yellow re[)resented 
by three parts yellow and one of green ; or if the disk is divided 
into 100 parts the result will be 75 jiarts yellow and 25 greeu. 



10 



COLOR hV THE KINDEUGAETEN. 



If having a. pririinatic spoctrum tlirown on a screen in a dark 
room we hold two small mirrors in the })a.lh of the light, one so 
placed as to receive, for example, the red rays and the other 
the violet rays, the uiiiTors may be so moved as to reflect the 
red and the violet rays on one spot on another screen. The 
result oi this ari-:iugemeut will be a mingling of the two colors 
to produce a color between the violet and red usually called 
purple. And so we may select any other two colors and thus de- 
termine what color is ])roduced by the mingling of au}^ two or 
more spectrum colors. But it is very iueouvenieut to make 
such tests, even with the best apparatus and most favorable con- 
ditions, and absolutely impractictible in elementary instruction 
with ciiiidren. 

The Use of the Color Wheel. 




Fig. 1. Fk;. 2. Fig. 3. 

It is an interesting fact th:it the rotation of the disks painted 
in sectors as above described produces effects ])ractically the 
same as the mingling of tlie two reflected lights. This is due 
to the i)Iiysiological effect called retcmtion of vision. If we set 
the end of a stick on fin; and rapidly whirl it the appearance of 
a cii'cle of light is produced because the impression made on the 
retina of the eye at one instant remains until the end of the 
liurning stick comes ai'ound to the same point again, and thus a 
complete circle of light is seen. The mingling of the colors on 
the rotating disk is due to the same quality of the eye. 

An l-:nglish scientist, J. Clerk jNIaxAvell, while trying experi- 



COLOR IN THE KIXDERGARrEX. 



11 



ments with painted disks less tluin forty years aoo, happily con- 
ceived the idea of cutting a radial slit in each disk from circum- 
ference to center, so that by joining two slitted disks they could 
be made to show any desired proportion of each, and hence 
they are called Maxwell disks. 

Fig. 1 shows the method of joining the two disks and Fig. 2 
their appearance when properly joined to be placed on the ro- 
tating spindle of a color wheel or color mixer, as the api)aratus 
is often called. 

Fig. o shows two combined color disks ready to be placed on 
the rotating spindle and Avith them a large white disk the cir- 
cuuifereuce of which is divided into 100 parts. 

Fig. 4 shows a color wheel with a com- 
bination of disks on the spindle ready to be 
rotated. 

'1 hese disks have heretofore been used 
as a curious piece of philosophical appara- 
tus rather than as of any practical value in 
color investigation, but when the idea of 
basing a color nomenclature on the six spec- 
tram colors was conceived the disks at 
once assumed a practical value never 
before ascribed to them, and now are 
an important factor in the onl}- system 
of artistic color instruction based on 
the scientific truths of color. 
Let us suppose that the two disks shown in Fig. 2 are green 
and yellow, but with a trifle less green than in the painted disk 
above mentioned. The increased amount of yellow and the 
smaller quantity of green will cause a color to appear liy rota- 
tion which will be somewhat dift'erent from the first-described 
painted disk. In order to determine b}^ definite measurement 
how much the difference is we place behind these two united 
disks a whole graduated disk the circumference of Avhich is di- 
vided into 100 parts, as shown in Fig. 3. From this graduated 
scale we may determine that the green yellow co'oi- is coinposed 




Fig. 4. 



12 COLOR IN THE KIXDERGARTES. 

of orcen 22 parts and yellow 7S parts. No artjument is ueces- 
sary to prove that where an exactness of color is required it is 
much better to be able to express a color in such definite terms 
as are here used than to say that this color is a little "less 
greenish" than the other. 

In the use of the color wheel it should be remembered, how- 
ever, that a very high rate of speed must be sustained, as many 
as fifty revolutions to the second being necessary, in ordw to 
produce a perfect mixture. 




Fio. 5. 

Fig. T) shows three disks joined ready for use on the spindle, 
and in the same way any nuHi])er within reasonable limits can 
be combined so thai any Iwo or more colors may be mixed and 
the composition definitely i-ccorded in the terms of the colors of 
the disks. 

The Old Theories Tested by the Wheel. 

As has been stated, the advocates of the Brewster or red, 
yellow and blue theory claim that orange may be produced from 
red and yellow. In fact leading educators have said in one 
lireatli that "in tiie solar spectrum, which is nature's chart of 
colors, the principal colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue 
and violet; of these red, yellow and blue are primaries, from 
which may be made the secondaries, orange, green and violet." 
IS'ow we can test this statement by the use of the disks. 

If red and yellow disks of medium size are joined on the 
s])iiidle in proportion, and a smaller orange disk is placed in 
front, tile outer ring of color should by rotation match the 



COLOR ly THE KINDERGARTEX. 13 

orauge at the center. A trial of this experiment will l>e not 
only interesting but convincing. Although the result of tlie 
rotation will be a color which might under some circumstances 
be called an orange, it is in no sense the same color as the spec- 
trum orauge at the center. 

If we attempt to produce a green by combining the yellow 
and blue disks the result will be surprising, but probably not 
couvincing, because the statement that yellow and blue make 
green has been so persistently' reiterated as a fundamental 
axiom that people who have given the subject but little atten- 
tion will feel that to doubt it is rank heresy. In a text book 
treating of color is found the following passage: "Green sub- 
stances reflect the green, i. e., the blue and yellow rays of the 
sunlight and absorb all the others." It is a fact, however, that 
in the mixture of blue and yellow light there is little or no traci' 
of green. 

If a greenish blue and a greenish yellow are used in the 
disks, as a matter of course a slightly green effect will be ob- 
tained, but with a good standard blue and standard yellow tlie 
result is very uearly a neutral gray. It is true tiiat in pigments 
a dull green can be made from the standard blue and yellow, 
and from a greenish blue, as Prussian blue, and from a greenish 
yellow a very fair green can be secured, but in neither case 
does the result approach the standard green, which has been 
adopted as the best imitation of the spectrum green. 

If red and blue disks are joined a much more satisfactory imi- 
tation of the violet may ])e made than is possible in the orange 
or the green, but it lacks the purity of the standard violet. 

But when these experiments Avitli the disks are presented in 
argument against the red, yellow and blue primaries, the advo- 
cates of that theory claim that in the pigments nuich better re- 
sults are obtained, and that in the practical use of coloi- we nuist 
depend on pigments, and hence the wheel is of no value in the 
argument. This view of the case can no longer be maintained, 
because the day has passed when an intelligent teacher will 
knowingly ignore the force of an argument backed by scien- 



14 COLOR IX THE KIXDEEdARTEN. 

tilic facts. True we must use piomeuts in representiug uature, 
but when nature has provided us with six good pigineuts for 
representiug her brilliant colors why accept only three and from 
them make miserable approximations of the other three? 

Again, why shall we not consider the effects in nature which 
are produced by the varying mixtures of colored light, and in- 
vestigate the principles on which they are produced, even though 
as artists it becomes our task to imperfectly imitate the colors 
to the best of our ability wdth the pigments at our command? 
If we consider the principles governing the color effects which 
are presented to our eyes in the ever-changing landscape, can 
we not much better interpret these effects and thus be better 
prepared to imitate them on the canvas or the paper? Nearly 
all color in nature is produced by the combination of local color 
and reflected colors. Often at evening the suuliglit takes on a 
red glow, caused by the reflected sunlight. 

In a room where the windows open on a green lawn with 
many trees nearly all the light is reflected from green surfaces, 
and hence is green light. In such a case a correct painting of 
objects in that room would have a general green effect. 

In order to obtain the most truthful effects of color in uature 
the artist should have sufllcieut knowledge of the principles 
which govern the combination of colors by reflected light so 
that his reason may aid his eyes. 

The afternoon light in a room on the west side of a city 
street may nearly all be red light, reflected from an opposite 
red })rick wall. The writer once experienced a realizing sense 
of this fact while examining some black goods in a tailor's shop 
so situated. lie complained that they looked brown, but the 
salesman truthfully replied that the black was a good color, 
but that in tiie afternoon the brick wall opposite spoiled the 
looks of all the black goods. 

The story is told of an artist who wished to represent a piece 
of blue bric-a-brac with a bit of yellow lace thrown on it, but 
having no lace at hand evolved an artistic production from his 
limited knowledge of the science of color and gave the surface 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 15 

a oreen color. Had lie kuown that blue and yellow light com- 
bined make gray instead of green he would lia\'e avoided the 
error. 

The fact that gray is the product of blue and yellow^ light is 
sometimes taken advantage of in forming backgrounds in litho- 
graphic printing, in which a stippling of alternate dots of yellow 
and blue, very close together but not overlapping, is used to 
produce a beautifully transparent gray nmch more pleasing than 
any one tint of gray. This result is due to the blending of the 
two colors in the eye with the same effect as the colors of two 
rotating disks are mingled. The fact that there is a difference 
between the color effects produced by mixing two pigments and 
the mixing of the light reflected from similar colored surfaces is 
a very strong argument for a system of color instruction based 
on disk combinations, rather than on pigmentary mixtures. 

A little experimenting with the rotating disks and with pig- 
ments will convince anyone that the disk combinations form the 
only possible basis at present known for logical color instruction. 
Concerning the Complementary Colors. 

Having shown that the three colors red, yellow and blue can- 
not be combined to make an orange, a green or a violet of a 
coiresponding degree of purity, we w'ill consider the other claim 
which is set np by the advocates of the Brewster theory, namely, 
that the secondaries are complementary to the primaries, the green 
to the red, the violet to the yellow and the orange to the blue. 

All color is contained in white light, and if we take from 
white light any given color, the color remaining is considered 
the c<)niplementar3\ If a sinall disk of standard red paper is 
placed on a white wall and the eyes fixed intently on it for a 
few seconds, and then the eyes slightly moved back and forth, 
a ring of a bluish green tint will be seen surrounding the red 
paper. This is called the accidental color, and is supjiosed to 
be identical with the complementary, but the image is too faint 
to give any very exact color effect. But it is sufficient to give 
a clue to the complementary, and Ave are to infer that a color 
between green and blue is that which is wanted. 



1(5 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

U' now \vt' can doteriiiine in what proportions red, blue and 
tiiven must be united to produce white light, we may solve the 
problem. This is not possible in the use of any pigmentary 
colors, because of the impurity of all pigmeuts as compared 
with siH'ctrum colors. Although the mixture of colored light 
rellected from the disks, which are uiade of pigmentary colors, 
gives nmcli purer color thau the actual mechauical mixture of 
the two [)igments, still, being a reflection of pigmentary colors, 
it is fai- from pure, and therefore the result must be a white of 
a low degree of illumiuation. 

If we hold a white card iu a bright daylight introduced through 
a window into a room, not necessarily direct suulight, it appears 
white. If we east a shadow or shade on a portion of the card 
l)y interposing some opaque object, the color is changed, but 
knowing that it is a white card we do not think of this as an- 
other color, but call it a shade. It, however, is in fact a gray, 
and a i)ocMliar gray called a neutral gray. We can perfectly 
imitate this gray by combining a white and black disk on the 
wlicel. It is a simple and interesting experiment to see what 
l)eautiful grays may be produced in this way. 

All such colors are known as neutral grays and they perform 
a very important part in color analysis, and may be produced 
by the combination of white and black disks. 

Therefore, if red, blue and green disks of medium size are 
joined on the wheel and in front of them small white and black 
disks are combined, we have a means for solving this problem. 
If these various disks can be so adjusted that when rotated the 
effect of the three colored disks is a neutral gray or white under 
a low degree of illumination, exactly matching a gray that may 
be olitaiued by adjusting the small black and white disks, then 
one step in the solution is taken, as shown in Fig. (5. 

With such an arrangement a very close match is produced, when 
the comliined disks show tiie proportions to be red, 41^; blue, 
22i ; gn'en, .'Wi for the larger disks, and for the small disks white, 
l."> and black, S,'). Now if lihie and green are combined in the 
same proportions, as indicated al)Ove and in quantities sufficient 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGABTEN. 



17 



when added together to fill the entire circle, of 100 parts, blue 
will contain 3<S.3 parts and green, Gl .7 parts, as shown in Fig. 7 ; 
and the disks when rotated Avill give the color which is the com- 
plementary of red : namely, a blue green. 





Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 



In the same way the complementary of each of the other 
standard colors, and, in fact, of any color may be obtained. 

The comi)lementary of orange is another color between the 
green and Ithie, but more lai-gely blue. The complementary of 
green is a violet red, and of violet a color between yellow and 
green, while yellow and blue are very nearly complementary to 
each other. 

Taken together, these experiments prove that the coniple- 
mentariesof the old primaries are not found in the secondaries. 
How to Secure a Color Nomenclature. 

As has been seen in the use of the green and yellow disks, a 
variety of hues between two adjacent standards may be pro- 
duced and thus all the spectrum colors imitated. 

The ])ossibility of imitating these colors having been vlis- 
covered, the way to establish a definite nomenclature of colors 
becomes plain. Each standard has only to be designated by 
some fixed symbol and measured 1)}' the use of the graduated 
disk to determine the amount of each color which enters into 
any given combination. To this end for convenience the follow- 
ing symbols are adopted : — 

R for red, O for orange, Y for yellow, (J for green, 13 for 



i8 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

liltu' mid V for violet. W serves us for white and B -would be 
:ul()i)led for black had it not already been used for blue, and 
therefori' we euii)loy N for the Latin word niger, indicating 
black. W ith these symbols and the graduated disk divided into 
100 parts we have a perfect and simple decimal nomenclature 
for all colors which can be made from our standards. 

Now let us notice the practical advantage that would result 
from a general adoption of this nomenclature. Suppose a cus- 
tomer to visit a wholesale dealer in San Francisco in quest of a 
large (quantity of i)aper of a special color. He has a sample 
somewliat near the color and presents it to the dealer. This 
may be a color between orange and yellow, and he says, "I want 
something a little more yellowish than this." The dealer is an 
agent for some Eastein maimfacturer and is ready to order it, 
if the customer can furnish a sample, but it is impossible to 
express in words just how much "more yellowish" the color 
must be. Also the customer is in great haste and a week's de- 
lay for tlie mail is an important item. But the dealer is pro- 
vided with a color whi'el, a duplicate of which is in use at his 
mill in the East. Therefore he slips the orange and the yellow 
disk on the spindle and in a very few minutes the exact color 
is produced and accepted by the customer. This may be Y. 35, 
O. Go, and a telegram is sent innnediately for 100 reams regular 
size and weight, color (). 65, Y. 35, and 'tis done, and the next 
day in a New England mill the pajier is being coated witli a 
color exactly the same as that shown on the Avheel in the San 
Francisco store. This is no romance, because we have for years 
been teU-phouing colors from our office to the mill, several 
miles avvay. 

Tints and Shades. 

Kvei-y color in nature is modilied b}^ light. A high degree of 
illumination, as bright sunlight, reduces the color, foi'ming a tint 
of the color. If a shadow is thrown on a color it is obscured, 
until as the shadow deepens the color is lost in darkness. These 
effects are called shades of color. In pigments tints and shades 
may l»t> iinnluced by the use of white and black pigments; with 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 19 

the wheel by white and bhick disks. Neither in pigmeuts uor 
with the disks are the results absolutely like the real effect of 
sunlight aud deep shadows. lu pigmeuts black does uot pro- 
duce as perfect shades as various other dark pigmeuts, while 
white pigmeuts give fairly good tiuts. 

With the disks the reverse is true, aud the black disks give 
beautiful transparent shades, while the impossibility of securing 
a perfectly white disk, together with some effect of rotation not 
perfectly understood, introduces in the lighter tints of some 
colors a violet gray effect that is not as pure a tint of the color 
as is secured by the mixture of white pigmeuts. This is most 
noticealjle in the red and the blue. It is not seen in the violet, 
aud appears very slightly in the orange aud green and but little 
in the yellow. On the whole the disk combiuatious of colors 
are much purer than the mixture of the same colors in pig- 
ments, and the quantity of each can be measured aud recorded. 

The shades of yellow as shown on the wheel will uot be 
readily accepted, but careful comparisou with the yellow paper 
in shadow proves that heretofore an orange yellow shade has 
been used for a yellow shade. 

As much dissatisfaction had been expressed with the papers 
provided for the kindergarten, this scheme of color was first 
applied to the production of a systematic line of such papers. 
First the six standards and black aud white were made aud 
then two spectrum colors between each two standards, so as to 
provide eighteen spectrum colors, which are considered sutfi- 
cieut for types of all the pure colors in nature. Lastly two 
tints and two shades of each were made. 
Scales of Color. 

When we arrange one of the spectrum colors with its tiuts 
ou oue side of it and itJ shades on the other, in regular order, 
from lightest tiut to darkest shade, a color scale is formed, as 
shown in each of the horizontal lines in the following chart. 
Each color is called a tone of the .scale and each scale consists 
of five tones. The standard or hue is called the key tone ; 
hence we speak of the red scale or the blue green scale- 



20 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 



Now when we place a series of scales with the key toues in 
the same order as found in the spectrum we have an arrange- 
ment like that illustrated in this "Chart of Spectrum Scales." 



R.V.T.2. 


■r.v.t.l' 


R.V. 

V. 
B.V. 


R. V. S. 1. 


R. V. S. 2. 


V. T. 2. 


V. T. 1. 
B V. T. 1. 


V.S.I. 


V.S.2. 


B. V. T. 2. 
V. B. T. 2. 


B. V.S.I. 


B.V. S.2. 

V. B. S. 2. 

B.S.2. 


V. B.T.I. 


V. B. 


V. B.S.I. 
B.S.I. 


B.T.2. 

x.g:b.t.2. 


B. T. 1 . 


B. 


X.G. B. T.l. 


X.G.B. 


X.G.B. S.l. 
G.B. S.l. 


XG. B. S.2. 
G.B. S.2. 


G.B.T. 2. 
B G.T. 2. 


G. B.T.I. 


G.B. 


B. G. T. 1. 


B.G. 


B. G.S.I. 


B.G. S.2. 

g:s.2. 


G. T. 2. 


G.T.I. 


G. 


G. S.l. 


Y. G. T. 2. 
G. Y.T.2. 


Y. G.T.I. 

G. Y. T. i: 


Y. G. 


Y. G. S 1. 


Y. G. S.2. 


G.Y. 


G.Y. S.l. 

Y.S.I. 
O.Y. S.l. 


G.Y. S.2. 
Y. S 2. 


Y. T. 2. 


Y.T.I. 


Y. 


O.Y. T. 2. 


0. Y. T. 1. 


O.Y. 


O.Y. S.2. 


Y. 0. T. 2. 
O.T. 2 


Y. O.T.I. 


Y.O. 


Y.O. S.l. 


Y O.S. 2. 


O.T.I. 


0. 


O.S.I. 
R.O. s.l. 
0. R.S 1. 


O.S. 2. 
R. 0. S. 2. 


R. 0. T. 2. 
O.R.T.2. 


R.O. T.l. 


R.O. 


O.R.T.l. 


0. R. 


0. R. S.2. 


R. T. 2. 


R. T. 1. 


R. 


R.S.I. 


R. S.2. 


V. R. T. 2. 


V.R T.l. 


V. K 


V.R. S.l. 


V.R.S.2. 



Chart of Spectrum Scales. 

It will be noticed in this diagram that three scales interme- 
diate betweeji blue and green are shown instead of two, as be- 
tween each other two standards. The color nearest the blue 
marked X. G. B. is introduced to bring the spectrum nearer 
perfection, but is not necessary in elementary work. 

One of the chief aims of color instruction is the harmonious 
combination of colors, and this chart serves as the basis of the 
theory of harmonies. 

Classification of Harmonies. 

While it is not to be supposed that the theory of harmonies 
can l)e taught to kindergarten pupils, the laws of harmonies are 
here briefly outlined for the teacher, so that all the use of colors 
niay be such as shall not violate these elementary laws, even 
though the limitations of the material employed render im- 
possible the most subtle and perfect harmonies. 



COLOR IN THE KINDEBGARTEN. 21 

The value of a giveu harmouy depends on the hues, tones 
and quantities of the several colors used. This is a subject 
about which it has thus far been impossible to profitably talk 
or write because of the lack of definite standards of colors and 
color terms on which to base statements of facts or proposed 
theories, but with these supplied by the color wheel Ave may 
hope for rapid advance in the near future. 

For the present the division of harmonies into classes is very 
much a matter of personal opinion, because our knowledge of 
the principles governing harmonies is as yet so limited, but 
Mr. Henry T. Bailey, State Supervisor of Drawing in ]Massa- 
chusetts, has suggested a classification which seems to be better 
than anything else proposed, in which he classes all harmonies 
under these five heads : Contrasted, Dominant, Complementar}', 
Analogous and Perfected. 

Contrasted. — The contrasted harmonies are those in which 
color is contrasted with non-color, or more accurately in which 
an active color, that is, a tone from the spectrum circuit, is con- 
trasted with a passive color, white, black, gray or sUver and 
gold ; for example, a blue green tint with white, or green blue 
with warm gray No. 1 . 

Dominant. — By dominant harmonies we mean those in which 
are combined ditfereut tones in one color scale. For example, 
red tint No. 1, red shade No. 1, or green blue tint, green blue, 
green blue shade. A dominant harmony composed of grays, 
or white, gray and black, is sometimes called a neutral harmony. 

Coinplementary. — This term refers to those harmonies in 
which are combined opposite or complementary colors in the 
spectrum circuit. The best of them are those which exhibit not 
only opposition in color but also opposition in tone. That is, 
tints of one color with shades of its complementary produce a 
more pleasing effect than do complementaries of equal value. 
The best complementary harmonies contain one or more pas- 
sive colors. 

Analogous. — This name is applied to those harmonies in which 
are combined tones from analogous scales. The best analogous 



22 COLOR IX THE KIXDERGABTEN. 

harmonies are produced when we take tints from one side of 
the key tone and combine them with shades from the scale on 
the opposite side of that containing the key tone. 

Perfected. — By perfected harmonies we mean those in which 
analogous colors are combined with the complementary of the 
key color, as yellow green tint, green, blue green shade, with 
violet red. Also those in which the effect of one analogous 
harmony is cojnplementary to the effect of another. All color- 
ing in nature and in the examples of the best historic art will 
be found to conform to one of these five harmonies. 

From the fact that this division of harmonies is based on the 
science of color we must not suppose that it furnishes any defi- 
nite rules for forming' the best harmonies, \yith our present 
knowledge rules can only at the best prevent certain absolutely 
bad combinations and give indications of the best effects. The 
best harmonies can at present only be determined by a consensus 
of the opinions of trained artists in color. But the immediate 
value of a sclieme of color with a nomenclature of color based 
on standai'ds will be found in the possibilities it offers for dis- 
cussion by means of verbal and printed reports of the experi- 
ments and (^pinions of artists and of their productions. 

The ultimate value of this system may be seen in the possi- 
bility of fornuilating rules for a very large number of the best 
harmonies l»ased on the average opinions of many artists and 
expressed in the terms of our nomenclature. 
Broken Colors. 

In ad^tition to the spectrum standards and intermediate hues 
and their tints and shades which are included in the chart of 
spectrum scales, theie is another class of colors which in gen- 
eral terms may l)e called broken colors, or gray colors. 

A l)roken color, as a broken red for example, is a standard 
red mixed with neutral gray, that is with black and white. In 
still other words, a broken color is a tint of that color in shadow ; 
or again we may say it is a shade of a tint or a tint of a shade. 

In nature nearly all colors are broken. First, there is always 
more or less vapor together with other impurities in the air, so 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 23 

that even in a clear clay objects a few hundred feet from us 
are seen through a gray veil, as it were, and in a misty or hazy 
day this is very evident. In the case of somewhat distant 
foliage the general color effect is produced by the light re- 
flected from the aggregation of leaves, some of which may be 
in bright sunlight and others in shadow, with a mixture of 
broken twigs. All these tints and shades of green and brown 
are mingled in one general effect in the eye. Also, owing to 
the rounded forms and irregular illumination of objects, we see 
very little full or local color in nature. 

Therefore the study of broken colors becomes the most fasci- 
nating branch of this whole subject. It also has an interest 
because nearly all the colors found in tapestries, hangings, car- 
pets, ladies' dress goods, etc., come under this head. In fact 
it would be hazardous for an artisan or an artist to use any 
full spectrum color in his work, except in threads, lines or dots. 
A considerable quantity of pure, standard green, for instance, 
would mar the effect of any landscape. 

It is a very interesting diversion to analyze samples of the 
dress goods sold cnch season under the most wonderful names. 
For example, "Ecru'" is a broken orange yellow, with a nomen- 
clature of 0.12, Y.lo, W.17, ISr..56. "Lin," is quite differ- 
ent in color, but the difference is largely in the quantity and 
proportions of white and black, thus : 0.7, Y.6, W.6, N.81. 
"Styx," is a broken red, thus: R.IO, W.21, N.G9; "Ashes 
of Eoses" is a broken violet red, thus : R.8:i, V.2^, W.1.5^, 
N.74; "Hanneton," is a broken orange : 0.7f, W.0:|^, N..So ; 
"Old Rose," broken red: R.Gai, W.24i, N.IO; "Oasis," 
broken yellow green : Y.7, G.IOJ, W.8^, N.74; "Empi-e:" 
G.ISJ, B.ll, W.lGi, N. 53. 

So we might analyze "Elephants' Breath," "Baby Blue," 
"Nile Green" "Crushed Strawberry" and hundreds of other 
names used by the manufacturers aud dealers, but while the 
same names occur with considerable regularity each season the 
colors change with the demands of the goddess of fashion. 

The names of a number of natural pigments have heretofore 



24 COLOR IN THE KINDEBGABTEN. 

been the hest-reeognized staudards for color names, and among 
these are ''Vermillion," "Enrnt Sienna," "Eaw Sienna" and 
''Indian Ked." 

The followiuiz; are the analyses of three samples of vermilliou 
of the best tube oil colors in the market : K.80, 0.14, W.6 ; 
R.87, 0.8, AV.5; R.oO, 0.'24, N.26. 

These three samples of "Eurut Sienna" analyze as follows: 
American, K.U, 0.6, W.3, N.89^; German, R.22i, 0.11^, 
W.2, N.G4; French, R.'25, 0.12^, W.5^, N.57. 

Similar samples of "EaAv Sienna" analyze as follows: 
0.18^, Y.6i, N.75; 0.17, Y.14, A\M, N.68; 0.8^, 
Y.3.^" W.2, N.8(5. . 

Two samples of "Indian Red" analyze as follows : R.llJ, 
0.7, AV.4, N.77^; R.l^U, ^-^U, W.2i, N.70i. 

From these figures it is readily seen that no use of pigmentary 
names can be relied on for a nomenclature. 

The So=cafled Tertiary Colors. 

In the I5rewster theory of color the tertiaries hold an im- 
portant place, they are spoken of as a specific class of colors, 
and are divided into three different lines, namely: "Citrines," 
"Russets" and "Olives." 

It is claimed that the union of orange and green makes citrine ; 
of orange and of purple, russet; of green and purple, olive. 
It must be evident to every one giving the subject any careful 
thought that as in this system orange is, for example, a mixture 
of red and yellow in indefinite proportions, and green is the 
mixture of blue and yellow in various quantities, the name 
citrine can have no definite meaning, as the orange may be any 
color from red to yellow, while the green may be a mixture of 
blue and yellow pigments in any proportion, so that if these 
indefinite secondaries are mixed in indefinite proportions the 
result nuist be very dissimilar. 

Moreover, although the names citrine, russet and olive are 
familiar and convenient terms for three general classes of colors, 
it is probable that no two persons would agree very nearly as to 
any single color best representing either class. 



COLOR IN THE KINDEEGARTEN. 25 

There are various colors which are recognized as coming 
within the line of citrines. The following are analyses of two 
which may be considered fair samples : First, 0.2^, Y.8, 
W.6i, N.83; second, 0.4, Y.19^, W.3, N.73^. Both are 
broken orange yellow, but the last is much less broken and 
much lighter. 

An analysis of two examples of olives gives G.13, B.6, 
W.12, N.69, and G.19, B.ll^, W.IO^, N.59. The last is 
lighter and much less broken than the first, having 30^ parts of 
color, while the other has but 19. Both are broken blue greens. 

From two samples of russet we get R.36, 0.4, W.9, N.51 
and R.47, 0.7, W.<S, N.38. The latter has more color, i. e., 
is less broken, and is also lighter. Both are broken blue greens. 

So in all these cases we have for the term citrine a gray 
orange yellowy; for olive, gray blue green, and for russet, gray 
orange red, each of which is a spectrum hue mixed with white 
and black. 

Probably many people will think that these combinations of 
color do not express what they mean when they say citrine, 
olive or russet, which shows that some more definite terms are 
required than those which we are accustomed to use. 
How the Grays are Classified. 

As we have seen that a broken color is a gray color, if, for 
example, we add more black and white to a russet which is a 
gray orange red, reducing the proportion of color at the same 
time, we shall pass the line where it should be called a gray 
orange red or a russet, and shall have a russet gray, or a gi'ay 
with a little red and orange in it, i. e., a warm gray. 

If the olives are treated in the same way we have cool grays. 
If we take only white and black we have neutral grays. If a 
little green is mixed with neutral grays we have a line of green 
grays. Thus all grays may for convenience be classed as neu- 
tral, warm, cool and green grays. 

The term warm color is applied to any color at the red end 
of the spectrum, including red, orange and yellow. The green 
blues, blues and violet blues, with possibly the violet, may be 



26 COLOR IN THE KINDEBGARTEN. 

called cool colors, while the greeu is a doubtful color in this 
sense. 

Simultaneous Contrasts. 

The subject of Simultaneous Contrasts is very interesting and 
relates to the mutual effect that two colors have on each other 
when placed in juxtaposition. Much has been published on 
this subject, entire books having been written reg.arding it, but 
the}' have been of comparatively little value, because of the lack 
of any detiuite standards of color, and hence the lack of any 
clear statement about the colors to which they refer. Therefore 
it has been impossible for a reader or a student to exactly re- 
peat the experiments described. 

A very good illustration of the effect of Simultaneous Con- 
trasts may be seen by first mounting on a piece of cardboard 
one square each of the six standard colors and pasting on the 
center of each a smaller disk of some gray, a dark neutral gray, 
for example. AVhen this is done it will be difficult for the per- 
son making the experiment to convince another that all the gray 
disks came from the same sheet of paper. 

A Review of the Bradley Color Scheme. 

To sum up briefly the Color Scheme which the writer has tried 
to present in the foregoing pages, it may be stated as follows : — 

First, six standard colors are selected from the solar spec- 
trum and their locations absolutely fixed by their wave lengths, 
so that they can at any future time be referred to for compari- 
son with pigmentary colors. 

Second, the best- possible pigmentary imitation of these six 
colors are made, which, with the purest white and blackest black 
form eight standards of color. From these pigmentary stand- 
ards Maxwell disks are made, by which intermediate spectrum 
hues are determined and named, and by which a complete and 
simple nomenclature of colors in terms of the standards is pos- 
sible and practicable. In accordance with this nomenclature a 
line of colored papers has been prepared for elementary instruc- 
tion in color. 

1 his system of color instruction is based on the belief that 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 27 

the study of color as seen iu uature should be the first thing to 
occupy our attention and that the art of mixing pigments to 
produce corresponding effects will be a ver}^ simple matter to 
one who has the color sense properly trained. 
Some Color Definitions. 

All color terms used by artists, naturalists, manufacturers, 
tradesmen, milliners and the members of our households are as 
indefinite as one might naturally expect from the utter lack of 
a logical basis for the whole subject of color. 

Without definitions or means for intelligently naming any 
color, it is not strange that the terms used in speaking of colors 
and color effects are so contradictory as to lose much of their 
force, if perchance they retain anything of their original mean- 
ing. For example, probably most people apply the term shade 
to any modification of a color, either a hue, tint or shade. 

It is true that a concise and reasonably full dictionary of 
color terms must be the outcome of long experience iu the 
study of the science of color and its use in our every-day lives, 
and at the best only suggestions can be made at present. But 
as there must be a beginning and some terms seem to be fairly 
well established, the following incomplete list of definitions is 
offered, always subject to amendment by the majority vote, 
for whenever such changes indicate advance they should be 
welcome. 

Standard Colors. — As used in this system of color nomen- 
clature, the best pigmentary imitation of each of the six spec- 
trum colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, and 
black and white. 

Pigmentary Colors. — All colors used and produced in the 
arts and sciences. This is in distinction from colors seen in 
nature, as iu flowers and the solar spect'/um. The term refers 
not only to pigments in the strictest sense but to all surfaces 
coated, painted or dyed artificially. 

Pure Colors. — A pure or full color, also called a saturated color, 
is the most intense form of that color without the admixture of 
white or black or gray. All spectrum colors are pure, while no 



28 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

pigmentary color is absolutely pure, l)ut tlie pigmeutary color 
■which approaches most nearly to the correspondiug color iu the 
spectrum must be selected as the pigmentary type of purity for 
that color. For example, the standard for green nmst be the 
best possible pigmeutary imitation of the spot in the spectrum 
which by general consent is called green, and so not only for 
the six standards but for all their combinations which produce 
the other colors in nature. 

In pigmentary colors the term pure is entirely one of relative 
degree. As processes of manufacture are improved and new 
chemical discoveries made, there is good reason to believe that 
we shall have much more intense colors and hence much better 
imitations of spectrum colors than are at present possible. 
Therefore as our pigments become purer those now accepted 
as full colors will iu time become tints or broken colors and 
new standards will be adopted. 

Hue. — The hue of a color is that color mixed with a smaller 
quantity of another color. An orange hue of red is the stand- 
ard red mixed with a smaller quantity of orange. \\"\\h the 
disks pure hues are secured only by mixing two standards ad- 
jacent iu the spectrum circuit. 

Loml Color. — The term applied to the natural color of an ob- 
ject when seen in ordinarily good daylight and at a convenient 
distance, as a sheet of paper at arms length, a tree at twice its 
height, etc. 

Tint. — Any pure or full color mixed with white, or reduced 
by strong light. In the disk combinations a spectrum disk 
combined with a white disk. 

Shade. — A full color in shadow, i. e., with a low degree of 
illumination. In disk combinations a disk of a spectrum color 
combined with a black disk produces by rotafou a sh:ide of 
that color. In pigments the admixture of black does not usually 
produce as satisfactory a shade of a color as may be secured 
with some other pigments, and each artist has his own prefer- 
ences in making shades of the various colors on his palette. 

Scale. — A scale of color is a series of colors consistinu- of a 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 29 

pure or full color at the ceuter aud graduated by a succession 
of steps to a light tint on one side and a deep shade on the 
other. 

Tone. — Each step in a color scale is a tone of that color, and 
the full color may be called the normal tone or the key tone In 
art this word h:is had such a vai'iety of meaning as to render 
it very convenient for Amateur Art Critics, together witli such 
terms as breadth, atmosphere, quality, values, etc., but in the 
consideration of color it should have this one, definite meaning. 
Warm Colors. — Red, orange and yellow, and combinations 
in which they predominate. 

Cool Color.^. — Usually considered to be green, blue and violet, 
and the combinations in which they predominate. l)Ut it is, per- 
haps, questionable whether green and violet may properly be 
termed either warm or cool. The term cool as applied to colors 
is quite indefinite, except in a general way, but red, orange and 
yellow are universall}' considered as wurni, and blue and green 
blue as cool. 

Neutral Gray. — Pure black and white mixed by disk rotation, 
or white in shadow. Black and white pigments mixed do not 
usually produce a neutral gray, but rather a blue gray. 

Warm Gray. — A neutral gray with the admixture of a small 
quantity of red, orange or yellow. 

Cool Gray. — A neutral gray with a small quantity of a cool 
color. 

Neutral Colors. — A term usually applied to gray, white. l)lack, 
silver and gold ; but the term passive colors has been suggested 
as better, with active colors for the pronounced colors, such 
as the spectrum colors and their combiuat'ons. 'J'liis sugges- 
tion is made because the word neutral should be confined to 
black and white and their combinations, while the term passive 
can be used more broadly. 

The term neutral has also sometimes been improperly applied 
to all grays and very broken colors. 

Broken Colors. — Often improperly called liroken tints. 
For simplicity a tint is described as a pui'e color mixed witli 



30 COLOR IS THE KINDERGARTEN. 

white, and a shade as the color mixed with black ; the corre- 
spouding broken color is the same color mixed with both black 
and white or neutral gray. A tint of a color thrown into a 
shadow or a shade of a color in bright sunlight gives a broken 
color. For various reasons a very large proportion of the 
colors in nature are bi'oken. Broken colors are much easier to 
combine harmoniously than full colors, or even tints and shades. 

In disk combinations when a pure color is combined with 
both a white and black disk the result will be a broken color. 
When a color is mixed with both black and white, i. e., with 
gray, and becomes thereby a broken color, it then belongs to a 
broken scale and has no place in any pure scale, i. e., a scale 
in which the key tone is a pure color. Neither has a broken 
scale of a color any place in a chart of pure scales or spec- 
trum scales. 

Luminosity. — The luminosity of a color is determined by 
comparing it with a neutral gray. When a color seems to be of 
the same brightness as a given neutral gray, i. e., not lighter 
nor darker, then that gray is its measure of luminosity. 

Potentiality. — The ability or strength of a color to effect 
other colors by combinations with them. For example, white 
has a greater potentiality than l)lack, yellow greater than red, 
and violet the least of all the spectrum colors. 

Ray of Light. — The finest supposable element of light- 
impression in the eye. 

Beam of Light. — A num])er of rays. 

Quality. — This term seems to be used rather indefinitely 
when applied to color, but perhaps it is not far removed from 
the term hue or kind of color. 

Value. — This word as applied to art is much abused and one 
which gives trouble to many. It may be difficult to define this 
term, although it has a very definite meaning to the artist. It 
is the one subject which must be carefully considered by the 
engraver or artist who attempts to interpret nature in black and 
white. It is the thing that the photographic plate usually fails 
to give in color subjects. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 31 

Complementary Colors. — As white light is the siiiii of all 
color if we take from white light a given color the remaiuiug 
color is the complement of the given color. When the eye has 
been fatigned by looking intently for a few seconds at a red 
spot on a white wall and is then slightly turned to the wall, a 
faint tint of a bluish green is seen, and this is called the acci- 
dental color of the red, which is supposed to be identical with 
its complementary color. If with the disks we determine a 
color which with a given color will produce by rotation a neu- 
tral gray, we have the complementary color more accurately 
than by any other means at present known in the use of pig- 
mentary colors. 

Harmony. — Two colors are said to be in harmony or to com- 
bine harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in 
juxtaposition or are used in a composition. 

Spectrum CircnU. — If a pigmentary imitation of the solar 
spectrum with the addition of violet red at the red end and red 
violet at the violet end be made, and the two ends joined, we 
shall have a spectrum circuit. This may be in the form of a 
circle, an ellipse or an oval. 

Primary Colors. — In the Brewster theory, red, yellow and blue. 
In the Young-Helmholtz theory red, green and violet are termed 
primary colors because it is supposed that from these three sen- 
sations all color preceptions are experienced. But this tlieory 
is questioned by many scientists to-day. Practically every spec- 
trum col(»r is a primary, because each has its own wave length. 

Secondary Colors. — In the Brewster theory orange, green and 
purple are called secondary because it is claimed that they are 
produced by the combination of primary colors in pairs. 

Tertiary Colors. — A term used in the Brewster theory to de- 
note three classes of colors called russet, citrine and olive, 
made by mixing the secondaries in pairs. These are all broken 
spectrum colors. The orange and purple produce russet ; the 
orange and green form citrine ; the green and purple, olive. 
There seems to be no good reason for perpetuating the indefi- 
nite terms secondaries and tertiaries as applied to color. 



Color Material in the Kindergarten. 



TH E object of this section of our manual is to suggest 
some methods for the presentation of color to the kin- 
dergarten children through the material used. Color is so uni- 
versal that almost everything around us furnishes some lesson, 
when the teacher and the children have once learned to heed it. 

No real kindergartuer will for a moment conclude tliat be- 
cause certain suggestions are printed in a manual of instruc- 
tion such methods are to be followed to the exclusion of all 
others. But if enough examples are here shown and the rea- 
sons given why they are used, the teacher may readily judge 
whether certain other methods which may suggest themselves 
to her mind may be substituted without violating any funda- 
mental principle. 

The teaching of color when properly conducted is certain to 
be interesting to both teacher and pupil. It is not an isolated 
study, but is closely connected with other educational topics 
and with our daily lives. 

As the study of language which taught the child to express 
himself correctly only in the lesson of the day would be almost 
worthless, and the reading lesson would be of little value which 
simply taught the pupil to read one text book, so that color 
instruction is vahieless which does not bring something more 
than the mere pleasure to be derived from it for the moment. 
Jt should lead the pupil to closer observation, to see color 
where he has iiever thought of looking for it, to discover har- 
monics wluMV he never knew before they could be found, and 
should ultimately lead him to the practical application of what 
he has learned in tlie arts and mamifactures. 

'I'lie nu'thod of development and the length of the lesson 
must be left largely to tlie teacher's judgment. Each lesson 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 33 

should be carefully prepared, and iu developiug the lessous 
there are three important topics to be remembered and held 
definitely in mind by the teacher, namely : Recognition, ar- 
rangement and use. The child should be taught to recognize 
the particular colors, to know them wherever he sees them, just 
as he would know a familiar face ; he should be able to arrange 
spectrum colors in their proper order and to use them iu making 
harmonious combinations. 

Short lessons are recommended, as experience proves that 
ten or fifteen-minute lessons accomplish better results than 
longer ones. 

As the sun is the source of all color in nature and the solar 
spectrum the chart of color standards, the child should first be 
made familiar with the spectrum. 

The Prismatic Spectrum. 

A cheap glass prism which cau be bought for a few cents 
will serve the purpose of the kindergarten iu tlie absence of 
the expensive one sold with an ordinary outfit of physical ap- 
paratus. As no kindergarten ought to be held in a room de- 
void of sunlight it is well to allow one or more prisms to so 
hang that the children may see a spectrum somewhere in the 
room much of the time. 

To show a clear spectrum bright sunlight is essential and a 
clear day desirable, as light clouds dim the brightness of the 
colors. Hold the prism with as steady a hand as possible and 
a little experimenting when no children are present will deter- 
mine the best location for operating. If there should be inside 
or outside blinds the effect will be greatly improved by closing 
them, so as to darken the room as much as possible. But e.eu 
without a darkened room a color spot can easily be shown. 

The spectrum may be thrown wherever the colors can be 
seen clearest, whether it be on the wall or on the tloor. Some 
colors develop brightest in one place and some in another. So 
when a particular color is to be studied the spectrum must be 
presented where that color can be seen most favorably. 

Look at the spectrum as a whole and what cau be seen ? First 



34 COLOR IN THE KINDEHOABTEN. 

call the particular attention of the pupils to the outside colors 
of the spectrum, the red and violet ; next take the two colors 
which follow these, namely, the orange and blue, and lastly 
study the green and the yellow, the central colors of the spec- 
trum band. This order seems to be the best to follow. The 
orange very likely may be found to be the most dirtlcult one to 
handle, and therefore will require greater care. 
The Colored Papers. 

Distribute samples of colored papers in the six colors, red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. Ask the pupil to match 
the outside colors of the spectrum in the paper. Ask for the 
names of these colors ; match colors next to these in the same 
way, and lastly match the central ones. Tell them that all 
these colore and many more are in the sunlight, and see if the 
spectrum reminds them of anything they have seen before, as 
the rainbow or the sun shining through a glass of Avater. 

Call attention to the fact that these six colors are the ones 
mosi clearly seen in the spectrum, and tell the pupil they are 
called the spectrum standards. These colors must be observed 
until they become fixed standards, the child's own property just 
as much as the mental image of the ball, cube or cylinder. 

Each standard nmst be made the subject of particular study, 
and fixed in the mind by comparison vxith the spectrum. If the 
child thinks when he sees red, ''This is like my spectrum red," 
and forms a correct conclusion, he is ready for orange, and so 
with each of the colors. 

If it were j)ossible at each lesson to show the children a spec- 
trum in a perfectly dark room they could get a definite idea of 
the exact red, orange, yellow, etc., but as this is impracticable, 
and on very many days no natural spectrum can be obtained, a 
paper spectrum is a vuluable substitute for general instruction, 
trom the colored papers a very pleasing and valuable imitation 
of a real solar spectrum can be made. This will have the six 
standard colors and two intermediate colors or spectrum hues 
between each two standards, with the violet red at the red end 
and the red violet at the violet end. While these colors are 



COLOR IX THE KINDERGARTEN. 35 

not fouud iu the spectrum, they are frequently met iu nature 
and form a complete spectrum circuit. 

The Rainy=day Spectrum. 

This paper spectrum has been aptly termed a "Rainy-day 
Spectrum." 

The following diagram gives the dimension of the space to 
be occupied by each color iu a well-adjusted prismatic solar 
spectrum, with a length of thirteen inches outside the red and 

V BV VB 8 XSB 68 BG G YG G-TYmYO RO OR R 



I 3/4 \V,b (3/e |3/,6 V4 "/■6 V4 Va % %i4/4%'/6'/.6 Va ^a 

violet. The artificial spectrum becomes a necessity for use in- 
stead of the "real spectrum" when the consideration of the in- 
termediate hue is taken up, because, except with a long spec- 
trum in a dark room, nothing more than a general impression 
of the color of the six standards can be obtained fi'om a sun 
spectrum. 

During their early lessons the teacher should ask the children 
to bring from home samples of the color which they ai-e study- 
ing. Bits of worsted and silk or of cloth or paper, together 
with plants, leaves and flowers will answer the purpose. 

Allow the children to grouy the colors that are similar and 
develop the idea of resemblance and difference of eolprs and 
bring out the fact that wdiile there are many similar colors there 
is only one standard of a color, and to the standard colors we 
give the names red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, and 
by these standards all colors are tested and classified, and 
hence the importance of training the eye to recognize the spec- 
trum standards readily. 

Ask for any sample of red that may have been brought. If 
those are produced which do not match the standard tell the 
children that they are not pure colors but are mixed with black, 
white or both or some other color. They may also be told that 
pure colors are not necessarily the most beautiful in combina- 
tion. Talk about the colors in nature and tell them there is 



36 COLOR IN THE KINDERGABTEN. 

Init little pure color seen there, for the reasou that the spectrum 
colors are subdued by the gray of the atmosphere. 

With this brief general introduction of the subject, a definite 
line of work is suggested with the apparatus and material which 
is recommended for the entire kindergarten course. As this 
relates exclusively to the color work, no connection with other 
work is indicated and each teacher must use her own judgment 
as to place and seasons for making the connections. 
Value of the Color Wheel. 

Some educators who recognize the value of the color wheel in 
determining facts regarding color and in establishing a nomen- 
clature on which the practical analysis of colors may be based 
are somewhat in doubt as to its value in the kindergarten and 
lower grades of school, and need a little information on this 
point in order to be convinced that it has its place here, while 
there are others who favor its use in these very grades, but are 
not sure how best to apply it and are also asking for light in 
the same direction. 

Many teachers who have made the trial are cou^ iuced that 
this apparatus is fully as useful in the lowest grades, as in the 
higher, and it is with that belief that the following suggestions 
are offered. 

The color wheel is of great value in the lowest grades, be- 
cause with it a large class can be taught as rapidly and as 
thoroughly as a single pupil, and a great number of color com- 
binations can be produced with a facility and in a purity of 
color not possible with any other apparatus or material. 

In the use of pigments in elementary grades the teacher is 
confined to water colors or colored crayons, both of which are 
very imperfectly adapted to gain satisfactory results. With 
water colors in cakes or tubes it is impossible for an expert to 
evenly cover any consideral)le surface with a color approaching 
a pure tone, and as commonly used the result is a mere tint of 
the required color. The same thing is equally true with colored 
pencils, while pastels are evidently unfit for little children to 
handle in the kindergarten or the schoolroom. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 37 

As soon as the children have become familiar with the stand- 
ard colors by the use of colored papers they can be taught to 
recognize the tints and shades of those standards, although 
some teachers maintain that the spectrum hues between the 
standards should be next considered, leaving the tints and 
shades till later. 

The majority of kiudergartners, however, have thus far pre- 
ferred to teach the various tones of each standard color be- 
fore introducing the subject of hues, although many have not 
thought it wise to at once use the terms tints and shades, ratiier 
preferring to call them light and dark colors. The children 
may be asked to bring red objects, and thus make a collection 
of all sorts of reds. The simplest and first classification will 
naturally be into light and dark reds. With the wheel many 
of these colors can be imitated by using red with white or black. 

It will no doubt be found that the reds will also differ in hue. 
having either orange or violet mixed with them, together with 
white or black, and probably both. But at first a little care 
must be used in the selection of such as can be nearly imitated 
on the wheel with red and white or red and black disks, with- 
out the use of white and black in one color. The children will 
then see that the standard modified by the white produces the 
light red and that the shades are formed In' using the black 
disks. This fact having been taught in a general way from 
the samples brought in, may then be shown more systematicidly 
by the use of a red disk combined with a somewhat smalh-r 
black or white disk. First show the full red disk in rotation 
and then add a small amount of black and rotate again. This 
will give a ring of pure red at the outside and a slightly darker 
red at the center. By repeatedly adding a little more black a 
series of shades of red may be seen. 

In the same way the light reds may be indicated by using the 
white disk instead of the black. For reasons already explained 
on Page 19 it is not well to show very light tints in red and 
blue on the wheel, but when the fact is made clear that white 
mixed with the color results in a light red and black produces 



38 COLOR IN THE KIXDEBGARTEN. 

dark red, the papers in tints and shades may be introduced as 
good examples of these tones. 

In the next lesson when orange is eonsitlered there will be no 
ditlleulty regarding the truthfulness of the tints made on the 
wlieel, even when they are very light, but at first the little child 
will not be able to connect in his mind a very light tint or a 
very dark shade with the standard. P'.ach standard will perhaps 
afford suftleient interest for one exercise, as ten minutes is long 
enough for little children to be occupied with one lesson. No 
child should be less than ten feet distant from the wheel in 
order to secure the best effect. 

Spectrum Hues. 

Having become fainiliar with the standards the child knows 
red and also oi'ange, for example, and may now be shown that 
there are a very large number of colors between the red and the 
orange. With the red and orange disks combined, all the hues 
between red and orange may be made familiar to the class. As 
there are four sizes of disks, we will designate them 1, 2, 3, 4, 
No. 1 being the smallest. 

A sample lesson may be as follows : Show a red disk No. 3 
and ask what color it is ; also an orange disk No. 2 with the 
same question. Combine the two disks on the spindle with the 
edge of the orange disk merely caught on to the red, but not 
projecting far enough to be noticed by the children, and rotate, 
showing them that it is red. Then stop and add a little orange, 
calling attention to the addition. Rotate and ask if the}' see 
any difference between the outer and inner part of the disk. By 
short steps add more orange so as to show a succession of 
colors between red and orange, calling these orange reds, until 
the amount of orange nearly equals the red. 

Before reaching equal parts of orange and red, remove the 
disks and substitute orange disk. No. 3 and red disk. No. 2. 
Begin at full orange and work back through several steps nearly 
to one-half red, teaching that these are red orange hues. As 
there is no defiuitel^'-established line of division between the 
class of colors called "orange red"' and "red orange" which 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 39 

cau be explained to the childreu the changiug of the disks and 
reversing of the relative sizes serves to separate in their minds 
the colors as indicated by the change of name from "orange 
red" to "red orange." 

The hnes between two standards is sufficient for one lesson, 
and with each lesson the corresponding samples of papers 
should be shown. 

Tints and Shades of Hues. 

The tints and shades of hues cau be shown by using a white 
or black disk with the two combined color disks. In this casci 
however, all the disks should be of one size. The No. 2 disks 
are very convenient for a small class, as they give suflicient sur- 
face and whirl with less effort than a larger size. 

In showing tints and shades of an orange red, for example, 
it is desirable to keep the relative proportions of orange to red 
approximately constant, while the amount of white or black is 
increased at each step. For example, if at the beginning the 
red was twice as much as the orange the same proportion of 
two to one should be continued as white or black is added. In 
presenting these experiments to the children it is unnecessary 
to accurately measure the quantities of the color each time, but 
by starting with approximately equal parts or a proportion of 
one to two or one to three, for example, it is not dillicult to re- 
tain nearly the same proportions throughout a series of tones. 

Experiments will demonstrate that the color sense of even 
young children can be developed to a wonderful degree by these 
simple experiments, and they will very soon learn to speak of 
colors in terms as definite as those now used by the kindergar- 
ten children concerning form. 

A few years ago it would have been a circumstance worthy 
of notice if a child should have used the tei-ms sphere, cube, 
cylinder, hexagon or pentagon, but in families where there are 
kindergarten children these terms are now iiousehold woixls. 
Largely owing to the kindergarten thedavs of "babv talk" have 
passed away and there is no reason why definite terms in color 
nomenclature may not be as common in the next decade as are 



40 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

mathematical terms to-day. In nature study this reform is mnk- 
ing rapid progress, and it has been demonstrated that the cbiid 
can as easily learn a scientific name of a part of a plant or an an- 
imal as some other word relating" to it that really means nothing. 

A little child who had become somewhat familiar with the 
color wheel one day said to the teacher, "What color do you 
think that dress is?" referring to a suit of the so-called "ma- 
hogany color." Wishing to test the judgment of the child the 
reply was, "What do you think it is?" The child replied, "Well, 
1 rather think it is a shade of red orange," which was a very 
close description of the color. And why is it not better to say 
a dark red orange than "mahogany color," if any definite color 
exiiression is required? 

The children may be allowed to bring samples of cloths, or 
flowers for analysis and after they have had some practice may 
be asked, before the experiment is made, what colors they 
think should be coml)ined to produce the same effect on the 
wheel. The colors of fabrics will very generally be broken 
colors, requiring the use of both black and white disks, and 
very fre<piently will be broken intermediate hues rather than 
standards. All this need not be told the children, but they 
may bt> shown the disks which by rotation form an imitation of 
the color and their attention called to the colors and the rela- 
tive pro[)ortions in which they appear. They thus see an actual 
chart of the color expressed in standards. 

In analyzing the colors of flowers they will generally prove 
to come near to tha spectrum colors or their tints and can be 
quite re:idily imitated, especially those of the wild flowers. 

In pansies and a few other flowers the colors may be too in- 
tense to be imitated with the disks, because the natural color is 
purer than any corresponding pigments yet discovered, from 
which to make the paper disks. If such a case occurs the same 
kind of color can be made and thus a name given, even though 
an exact match in purity cannot be produced. 

It is reasonable to expect that in due time such an advance 
in practical chemistry may be gained that much purer and 



COLOR m THE KINDERGARTEN. 41 

stronger color effects can be obtained iu pigiueuts aud thus 
the scope of color anal3'ses enlarged. 

The following exercise in color may be introduced as a recre- 
ation, after a class has made considerable progress. Make a 
combination of two or more disks, holding them meanwhile so 
that the pupils cannot see them, aud have an assistant hold a 
?heet of cardboard or other screen in front of the wheel while 
the disks are being adjusted on the spindle and until a good 
speed has been secured in the rotation. Then ask the class 
what colors are mixed to produce the effect. Having secured 
some guesses from the pupils, let the rotation cease aud the 
children will see exactly the disks which have been combined 
to make the color and also will learn objectively the relative 
proportions of the several colors used, as measured by the sur- 
faces exposed in the several disks. 

In the the theory of color presented in this manual the com- 
plementary aud perfected harmonies are based on the com- 
plementary colors as determined by the use of the color wheel, 
but it is doubtful if those experiments should be shown kinder- 
garten children, aud possibly the contrasted aud dominant har- 
monies are as many definite divisions of the subject as can be 
profitably named to them. But combinations of the papers iu 
analogous aud complementary harmonies may be used with the 
little children. 

The analogous combinations may be derived from the chart 
of spectrum scales. In the training class the wheel should be 
used to show how the exact complementary colors are deter- 
miued, but with the children those combiuations may be ap- 
proximated with the papers. For red the olue green is a good 
complementary and for orange the green blue. Theoretically 
the complementary of yellow is a very slight violet blue, aud 
of blue an orange yellow, but iu the papers, as the iuteriiiediate 
hues are limited to two between each two standards, the yellow 
aud blue are more nearly complementary to each other than 
any other pairs. The complemeutary of green is violet red and 
of violet the yellow greens or green yellows of the papers. 



42 COLOR IN THE KINDEBGARTEN. 

If eoinpleinentiirv liannonies are attempted with the papers 
they imist be produced with ,<>reat care, and the tints and shades 
are far safer to use than full standards. If full standards are 
intioduced the amount of that color in any design must be very 
small in proportion to the whole surface of the design. 

Any teacher having the use of a color wheel will find profit- 
able recieatiou in matching various natural colors and obtaining 
tiieir analyses, because in this way such training of the color 
sense is secured as will insiu'e accurate judgment in the selec- 
tion of colors for experiments and facility in their analyses be- 
fore a class. 

Nothing wuU so rapidly train the color perception as this per- 
sonal practice, and the experience gained will enable a teacher 
to do excellent expert work in matching colors presented by the 
children and thus avoid some unpleasant delays when the wheel 
is being operated before their critical eyes. 

Ability to use the color wdieel is only acquired by practice, 
both in the mechanical manipulation of the mactiine and in the 
combinations of the disks to imitate natural or pigmentary 
colors. No audience is more critical or more appreciative than 
a company of children and very much of the good effect is lost 
if they detect a failure to successfully produce a color, eveu 
though a reason may be given which would be entirely satisfac- 
tory to an adult audience. 

For this woik a small mirror may be arranged in front of the 
wheel at perhaj)S a distance of five or six feet, so as to show the 
disks at the same tinie the wheel is being rotated. Possibly the 
closest matches may not be secured in this way, but the con- 
venience is so great as to reconnnend this device to Avhoever 
wishes to make experiments. 

The First Gift. 

The lialls of tlie First (Jift sliould be eovei'ed with wools cor- 
resj)onding as nearly as possible to the six spectrum standards, 
as this is the first expression of color that occurs in the kinder- 
garten material and first impressions are very important to the 
child. For many years, possibly ever since their inception by 



COLOR IN THE KlNDERGAIiTEX. 43 

Frcjebel, the colors of the First (iift \\:\\v l)een iiiueh nearer the 
standards now adopted than the colors found in tlie Occupa- 
tions. But the mistake has been made of using a dark i)uri)le 
instead of the beautiful violet of the spectrum which is one of 
the most attractive colors to tlie child, although the least ag- 
gressive. The First Gift balls should be compared with the 
sun spectrum, and in this comparison the green and violet of 
the balls should be as truly representations of the spectrum 
colors as the other four. 

Sewing. 

"While the colored thread, worsted or silk used in the card 
sewing or emliroidery affords a connecting link between recog- 
nition of color and color combination, the sewed line shows but 
a small surface of color. Nevertheless it is well to work what- 
ever school of sewing is used in accordance with the theory of 
color. The application nui&t be made to the school of sewing 
in its entirety. Any kiudergartuer, however, will be at liberty 
to modify our suggestions to suit the needs of lier pupils as 
dictated by her own judgment. 

It seems desirable to use the six standards in the spectrum 
order, incidentally thereby making the work serve to teach this 
order. "After each of the six standards have l>een taught and 
used, let eacli child make a choice of color and then give a gen- 
eral review. 

In connection with this review -allow the use of the tint and 
shade of each standard, paynig n<» attention to them as tints 
and shades, but allowing the cliildren ti» use tlieir own natural 
expressions for these terms, as light red, dark red, etc. The 
unconscious expression of the standard with its tint and sliade 
seems to help fix the standard color in mind, while it also gives 
n pleasing variety to tlie work. One card, a circle for instance. 
Laving been sewed in a standard color, the next card may con- 
sist of three smaller circles and the sewing be done in tlie tint 
and shade of the standard, this being followed by two circles 
on one card sewed with the tint and shade only. 

Close up this review by allowing the little folks to ch(K>se a 



44 



CO LOB IN THE KINDEBGABTEN. 



color, vequiriug them to tell as they make the choice whether 
they have a standard orange, or a light or dark orange, as the 
case may be. 

The circular school of sewing here used is intended merely 
as a medium for illustrating the order and sequence in which 
the colors may be employed in any school of sewing. The one 
idea intended to be expressed is that in this Occupation the spec- 
trum colors should be used in their order and given their proper 
names, rather than a miscellaneous lot of colors having no 
value as standards and no definite names. 

The accompanying designs will be readily understood with" 
out extended explanation. 




Fig. 1 represents a card pricked for a single circle. Six of 
these may be sewed, one in each of the standards. 




^ T :; Srd ;; 5 : 



Rg.Z, rig.5 

Fig .2 represents a First Gift ball, and should, of course, be 
in one of the standards. A thread from the circle to the dot at 
the right indicates the string to the ball. 

Fig ."5 introduces the tint, standard and shade in three equal 
circles. 

Fig. 4 a tint and shade. 

Fig. 5 another arrangement of standard, tint and shatle on 
one card. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 



45 



Fig. 6 shows the tint, standard and shade iu three concentric 
circles. 

Fig. 7 another arrangement of circles for tint and shade. 




: 5 •: T :::5ld: 



Fig.4 Fig.5. 

Fig. 8 a very effective arrangement of three equal circles in 
standard, tint and shade. 

Fig. consists of six concentric circles in the standards, with 
red at the outside and violet at the center. 





This design can be modified in many ways. The order may 
be reversed by placing violet at the outside and red at the cen- 
ter. Also the same design and arrangement may be used iu 
tints and shades. 





Rg.8. Fig.9. 

The use of sewing iu color instruction is rendered practicable 
only by the receut introduction iu kindergarten material of cot- 



40 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

ton and silk threads in the standard colors and a tint and shade 

of each. 

Weaving. 

The Occupation of weaving affords a greater opportnnit}' for 
the practical application of color than almost any of the others, 
partly because the combinations of colors are oftentimes so im- 
portant a part in developing the design, a good design being 
not uufrequeutly spoiled by the wrong selection of color. 

Determine before connneucing to weave just how much of this 
school of work will be given and then study to adapt the true 
theory of color and harmony to the work as a whole. When 
beginning the weaving, select the simplest combinations of 
colors but choose such as will help to fix in the mind the par- 
ticular color being taught at the time. For instance, if standard 
red is l)eing studied, use red in combination in the weaving. 

Contrasted harmony is the one best suited to carry out this 
thought, and the following suggestions are given as an aid : — 

It is always safe to combine a standard with a gray, remem- 
bering, however, that the effect of a given gray is better with 
some colors than with others. 

Neutral grays are composed only of black and white and 
should theoretically combine agreeably with all active colors but 
with some colors the effect is more pleasing than with others. 

Warm grays contain some red, orange and yellow in addi- 
tion to the black and white, and the w^arm colors, red, orange 
and yellow or their complementaries are considered most satis- 
factory with warm grays, while the cool colors, green, blue, 
violet and their complementaries combine better with the cool 
gi-ays. The cool grays are made by adding some blue to the 
black and white. 

In the Bradley colored papers the warm and cool grays 
^marked No. 1 contain but a small proportion of color and usu- 
ally combine well with any of the spectrum stanchirds or hues. 
But sometimes the dark grays are more desirable. If limited 
to the use of one passive color, either white or a light neutral 
grav IS the best one to use. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGABTEN. 47 

It is also recommeudod that the mat be of the standard color 
aud the fringe of the passive color. One reason for this ar- 
rangement, is that the mat furnishes a larger surface of color 
and this is desirable when a definite color is being taught. 
Moreover, many teachers consider this manner of combination 
more pleasing, and if, for example, a red mat and grey strips 
lu'.ve been used the finished design may be mounted on a white 
ground and thus a new effect produce'd in three colors. 

Use the six standards in the order they are found in the spec- 
trum and when they are Avell fixed in mind, review each and in 
place of the gray combine it with its own tint or shade, calling 
the latter light and dark colors until the terms tint aud shade 
are taught in connection with the use of the color wheel. 

This combination of the tint and shade with its standard pro- 
duces dominant harmony. AVheu considering dominant har- 
mony the following suggestions may be found helpful. 

Two tints of the same scale combine well, or two shades to- 
gether produce a pleasing effect and probably in some instances 
a tint aud a shade will give the better combination ; or a stand- 
ard may be used with either its tints or shades if desind, though 
usually the full colors do not produce as good effects as the 
modified colors. The addition of a passive color is admissable 
and often improves the effect. 

It is left to the individual taste as to whether the mat shall 
be of the tint or the shade. When the completed work is to 
be mounted in a book as with training classes, a pleasing efl'ect 
is produced by so arranging the work that opposite pages when 
considered in combination will produce a harmou}'. Jf inter- 
mediate hues are selected for some of the mats and fringes two 
adjacent pages may form in combination, either analogous or 
complementary harmony. 

For example, one page may be in yellow green and the oppo- 
site in blue green thus producing an analogous harmony or a 
red page with the opposite in blue green will furnish a com- 
plementary effect. Thus while each page taken by itself jnay 
be an example of a dominant harmony, the pages by combiua- 



48 COLOR IN THE KIXDER GARTEN. 

tions in pairs facing each other may produce analogous or com- 
plenientary harmonies. 

Intertwining. 

The relation of color to intertwining is similar to that of 
color to paper cutting or papei' folding. Much color effect may 
be developed in the mounting. 

Parquetry. 

Next in irportauce to weaving as regards color is parquetry. 
This Occupation is valuable alike to the teacher of color and to 
the drawing teacher in teaching design. 

It embodies the forms of the Seventh (xift and increases the 
interest in that Gift by bringing in the element of color and by 
making permanent the forms of life and beauty. 

Begin by arranging simple borders and rosettes. This must 
be done in accordance with the first principles of design in order 
that no wrong habits may be acquired which will have to be cor- 
rected when design is studied in connection with drawing. 

Ju the following borders the use of colors is suggested. 

Figs. 1 to G show the repetition of the same form and color. 
In Figs. 7 to lo alternation of both form and color are shown. 
The two colors are indicated by single and double nding in the 
engraved designs. 

The same principles regarding colors may be modified to ap- 
ply to rosettes and other designs. 



Fig. 1. Fi(i. 2. 

First repeat the form in a straight line with the same space 
between each two forms as in Fi"s 1 and 2 




Fio. 3. Fig. 4. 

Next repeat one form in one color, letting the forms just 
touch as in Fios 3 and 4. 



COLOR IN THE KIND EE GAB TEN. 



40 



The same form uud color are used iu each Fig, 5 and Fig. 6, 
but tlie forms overlap. This is more difficult to do. The forms 
may overlap from center to center, or only a quarter, but the 
overlapping should be uniformly the same. 




Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 

When beginning with young children let them paste the forms 
on a background of any neutral paper or even common mauilla 
may be used. The parallel line n^ay be shown by a pencil line 
and dots may be placed to indicate the spaces. If gummed 
parquetry is used do not allow the child to wet the papers in 
his mouth. A moist camel's hair brush is a very neat way of 
doing it. When the ungummed parquetry is used supply each 
child with a drop of mucilage, a wooden tooth-pick, with which 
to apply the mucilage and a piece of old cotton cloth. There will 
be a tendency to use too much mucilage, but very little is needed 
to fasten the form. Use the cloth to press the form in place, 
pressing directly down upon it so as not to let it slip from its 
correct position. Great care must be taken to teach the child 
to do this work neatly. While these ways have been suggested 
there is no objection to any other ways wliich may be devised. 

When simple repetition is well understood begin to teach al- 
ternation. This may be done iu each of the Figures from 1 to (I 
inclusive by using the same form and alternating two colors. 
Tlie same form may be placed in groups of two or three ell her 
touching or overlapping and alternating two colors as in Fig. 7. 



Fig. 7. 

Alternation may be still further illustrated by alternating two 
forms in either one or two colors and with a space between the 
forms, as in Figs. 8 and 9. 

Fig. 10 makes use of the same form and altci-UMles tlie i)Osi- 



50 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 



tion, these may be spaced or may touch, and the colors can be 
alternated or not just as the teacher prefers. 

Fig. 11 alternates the position and color and the forms over- 
lap. The darker squares touch at their corners before the 
lighter squares are pasted over them. 




Fig. «. Fkt. 9. 

Figs. 12 and 13 are suggestions for producing an alternation 
in both form and color and overlapping the forms. 




Fk;. 10. 




Fi(i. 11. 





Fig. 12. Fk;. 1;>. 

When sufficiently skilled it will add to the interest of the 
children if they are allowed to add a narrow margin of the same 
color as the units. 

The skill which is acquired in handling the parquetry papers 
will prepare the children for the paper cutting in which they will 
learn to cut the units to be repeated, and ultimately of cotu'se 
they will design the unit. 

As it is tlie object of tiiis niaiuial to treat of color tlie subject 
of form and arrangement cainiot be enlarged upon, and the 
hints given regMrdiug color nrnmgenient in these few examples 
of borders are equally applicable to other elementary combina- 
tions of forms. 



COLOR /A' THE KINDERGARTEN. 51 

Paper Cutting. 

While the paper cutting provides a means for making pleas- 
ing designs and using beautiful colors, the average kindergart- 
ner has usuall}' confined herself to the use of few colors. This 
is sure!}' a better course to pursue than to introduce such a con- 
glomeration of color as is sometimes done. 

Elementary work in color includes recognition of the six spec- 
trum standards and with young children does not advance be- 
yond contrasted and dominant harmon}' during the first year. 
And Avhile the following suggestions are given for carrying out 
this thought, much must be left to the individual taste and 
judgment of the teacher in deciding the needs of her own pu- 
pils. Study how to apply color to the Occupations as a whole 
as far as is possible. With the children the color used should 
be such as would aid in the teaching of recognition of color, and 
with training classes the effect when mounted nuist be consid- 
ered. During the first year many will doubtless prefer to use 
but one or two colors for the entire school of Avork, and again 
some will prefer to employ one color for one sequence or series 
of cutting, another color for the next and so on. Either way is 
allowable. The color of the mounting sheets will aid in making 
the harmony. 

It also makes a pleasing arrangement to use a tint and a 
shade of the same color in the one series. Training class pupils 
may mount a design in the tint ou the left-hand page of the 
mounting book, and a design in the shade ou the right-hand 
page, or the tint and shade may be combined in the same de- 
sign, using either of the colors for a background. 

The entire work may be carried out after this plan. It will 
be fouud that children may also do very good work if allowed to 
mount their work on a background, and it adds to their interest. 
Any of the suggestions for sewing, weaving or parquetry apply 
to this Occupation as well. 

More advanced work may be profitably done in a training 
class than in a kindergarten because every teacher should know 
much more of her subject than she expects to teach and this is 



52 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

specially true of work in color. This grade of work cau also 
be introduced in the lower primary schools es|)ecially if the 
children have had the advantage of a kindergaiten education. 
As the number of colors studied is increased there is of course 
a larger range of colors from which to choose, and while domi- 
nant harmony will be the safest to employ by careful direction 
on the part of the teacher somethiug may be done, with analo- 
gous harmony. With training classes this may be done in the 
mounting, by placing analogous colors on opposite pages of 
the mounting book or b}' placing the design on a background 
of any analogous color before mounting it. The latter may be 
employed with the children. Complementary harmony may also 
be developed in the same manner by mounting colors which are 
complementary on opposite pages, while many times a narrow 
border line of the complementary color is sufficient to give a 
pleasing result. 

The colors must be selected to suit the design and the right 
proportion of each color must be used. Many times when a 
unit of one color and a background of another does not produce 
a pleasing effect, the combination reversed will be an improve- 
ment. Experiments and the study of historic art will be very 
valuable aids to teachers in this work. 

In making complementary color effects in a composition great 
care must be taken to use very little pure color, and it is rarely 
that anything approaching a full color can be introduced. The 
broken colors are far safer and often as beautiful as the pure 
colors and their tints and shades. 

In this manual no attempt is made to treat of any other sub- 
ject than color as applied to the several Gifts and Occupations, 
otherwise much might be said in criticism of the school of cut- 
ting as very generally adopted in the kindergarten work as iu 
this Occupation more than in any other there seems to be a 
demand for advance in the direction of art education. In a 
school of cutting where an attempt is made to use all the waste 
pieces of paper in forming a design, the results are in many 
cases most disastrous to artistic advancement and growth. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGABTEX. 53 

Paper Folding. 

An interesting feature of this instructive Occui)atiou is tlie 
color thought which may be developed. Here as iu paper cut- 
ting a few well chosen colors are better than many. In order to 
be sure that the result will be desirable the teacher nnist first 
consider the work as a whole and then study the details. The 
mounting, with training classes, is an inii)ortant item when se- 
lecting the colors. 

The several folded forms which ai-e to be on one page mav 
all be of one color if desired, and the coated papers are found 
to be very effec ive in this Occupation, as the white side when 
it is folded over produces with the color a contrasted harmonv 
which is pleasing in itself. This is of course the simplest ar- 
rangement possible. 

Contrasted harmon}' ma}' also be carried out with the engine 
colored papers by choosing an active and a passive co'or which 
harmonize well and folding a part of the forms in each, con- 
sidering how to bring out the color to the best advantage in the 
arrangement which must be followed in every sequence or series 
of folding. 

A good result in dominant harmou}' may be secured by using 
two or three tones fi'om one color scale, selecting the tone for 
each folded form with reference to its position on the page 
when mounted, using the same color scale for the entire school 
or if desired the effect is good if the teacher wishes to select a 
different color scale for each series or for each page. 

Heretofore when little attention has been given to the harmo- 
nies of color it has been popular because safe to execute an en- 
tire school of folding iu one color. But in this practice much 
of beauty in the result and of education in the process has been 
lost. With a well graded line of colors in the engine colored 
papers very beautiful and effective results can be secured iu 
the grouping of forms in the mounting, and some of the most 
valuable instruction in color combinations imparted. While it 
is imposible to produce iu the eugine colored, or [julp colored 
papers, the pure standard colors which are necessary for the 



54 COLOR IN THE KINDEBGARTEN. 

earliest color instruction, still the Bradley line of these papers 
is so classified and graded that they ai-e as educational in their 
way and often more beautiful in combination than the purer 
colors of the better graded coated papers. 

Concerning Water Colors. 

In a full discussion of the subject of color teaching, the use 
of water colors naturally calls for consideration, because in the 
past this material has been the only source from which it has 
been possible to derive any systematic expression of color in 
the elementary grades of study. The introduction of properly- 
graded colored papers has removed this restriction in the lowest 
grade of work, and the color wheel supplements the papers in 
the higher grades. 

Water colors when skillfully used produce beautifully soft 
and delicate artistic results, but even in the hands of an artist 
this material is not best adapted to strong effects and full color. 
When a child is old enough to neatly draw any outline and to 
apply water colors approximately within the confines of these 
lines the use of the pencil and brush may afford an innocent 
and valuable occupation under the proper dir ction of a teacher. 
But for a logical system of elementary color instruction it is 
almost valueless, because only light tints can be evenly and 
smoothly spread in this medium and the observation and classi- 
fication of these faint expressions of color effects require the 
most expert judgment and best color education. P^lementaiy 
color instruction must be based on standards, affording the 
fullest and purest expressions of color which can be obtained, 
and these cannot be produced by children, nor even by experts, 
witli the water colors put on the market in cakes and tubes. 

In this statement no disparagement is intended of the beau- 
tiful color effects produced by our artists in the delicate aqua- 
relles which adorn our drawing-rooms and are intelligently ad- 
mired by those who are best educated in color effects. Eut 
these have the same place in primary color instruction that 
the purest examples of poetry and prose have in elementary 
literary education — merely as examples of best expressions. 



COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 55 

In pastel cra^'ons pure aud full color expressions may be pro- 
duced, and various colors can be beautifully mingled together, 
but the material is not suited to the use of young children aud at 
the best is neither neat nor couveuieut for schoolroom practice. 
Color Blindness. 

The fact that states and cities employ experts to examine the 
school children to determine whether they are atHicted with color 
blindness is proof that the ordinary teacher is not considered 
competent to do the work At the same time if that definite 
instruction were given in color which is considered essential in 
other subjects of no more importance, every teachei' would be 
able to determine definitely if a child under her care has normal 
color perception and if not, whether the defect is due to genuine 
color blindness or to a lack of knowledge how to recognize or 
analyze colors and to give them correct names. 

The importance of such training can hardly be overestimated 
when one stops to consider the fact that the business mtercsts 
of many individuals is at stake and that their life work may be 
a failure for want of proper instruction in this very subject. 

It is of momentous importance to the locouiotive engineer 
and to the marine pilot, not only as individuals, but also because 
travelers throughout the world intrust their lives to them for 
safety. And this class of applicants for positions is but one of 
a considerable number who may find a good or a bad color sense 
the turning point in determining what occupation to choose. 

There are varieties and degrees of the defect or disease gen- 
erally known as color blindness, but recorded experiments ex- 
tending over a period of several years have determined that 
only about six per cent of the population can really be called 
color blind. Genuine color Itlindness has thus far been consid- 
ered incurable and not in all cases can experts tell whether 
the ditliculty is with the eye or with the brain. This uncer- 
tainty is not a matter of i)ractical importance to the teacher. 
It is only important for her to determine whether defects exist 
which are equivalent to either partial or total color blindness. 

The only way to ascertain the condition of any one with re- 



56 COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

ference to his color perception is by having him compare colors, 
aud not by naming them. Formerly color charts were used 
for testing color blindness in children, the teacher showing the 
colors to the pupils and asking the names But a child soon 
learned, from hearing the others recite, which spot was red, 
which green, etc., so that the amount of information which the 
teacher was able to obtain proved quite restricted and the natu- 
ral desire of the child to show that he possessed as mucli knowl- 
edge as his mates stimulated him to unintentionally deceive the 
teacher. The better way of detecting color blindness is through 
selections made by each pupil. 

Moreover, it is not a matter of indifference what colors should 
be selected for the pupil to match. Theory and experience 
combine to show that certain colors afford a more satisfactory 
criterion of color blindness than any others. Let the teacher 
give to the suspected pupil a sample of a rather light tint of 
bluish green, and direct him to select other samples approach- 
ing this color. If his color vision is normal he will, of course, 
select only the various hues of green, ranging between the ex- 
tremes of greenish yellow and greenish blue. If, however, he 
is either red or green color blind, he will select, in addition to a 
luunber of green samples, some of the neutral tints — such as 
gray, buff and drab. The fact of color blindness being indi- 
cated by the selection of more or less of these neutral tints as 
matches for the green sample, the teacher may then proceed 
to test whether the case is one of red or green color blindness. 
For this purpose the best criterion is afforded by asking the 
pupil to match a sample of a rather light tint of reddish purple. 
If he is red color blind, dark l)lues, and violets will be among 
the colors which he will select to match the light reddish purple. 
If, on the other hand, he is green color blind, light grays and 
other neutral tints will be among his selections. If the selec- 
tion of dark blues as matches for the light reddish purple indi- 
cates red color blindness, an interesting confirmatory test may 
be made by asking the pupil to match a sample of the most 
brilliant red. If he is red color blind, there will appear among 



COLOB IN THE KINDERGARTEN. hl 

the reds which he selects to match the sample more or less of 
the dark shades of greens and browns. While a teacher only 
versed in the theory of color blindness and inexperienced in 
the use of tests might reasonably hesitate to take the responsi- 
bility of pronouncing the pupil color blind, these tests would 
at least warrant her in I'ecommeudiug the parents of the pupil 
to submit the child to the eiraminatiou of an expert. 

It is supposed that many more men than women are color 
blind, but there may be a doubt whether this opinion is not due 
to the fact that girls are brought so nmch more closely into re- 
lation with colored material than boys. This problem may be 
more satisfactorily solved when both boys and girls shall re- 
ceive a systematic color instruction. 

It must be evident to any kindergartuer who carefully reads 
the foregoing pages that the brief suggestious regarding color 
instruction in the use of the kindergarten material might have 
been indefinitely increased by a multiplication of examples and 
illustrations. Hut it has been the purpose of the author to 
merely offer to competent kindergartuers some general sugges- 
tious regarding the application of tne true theory of color to 
their work, so that it shall not be necessary for kindergarten 
children to unlearn iu the high school or university anything of 
color which they may have been taught iu the kindergarten. 



BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 

PUBLISHED BY MILTON BRADLEY CO. 



KNIFE WORK IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 

PROBLEMS FOR PURILS UNDER FOURTEEN. — BY GEORGE B. KILBON. 

This book aims to furnish the average teacher witli a course in 
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Price, iu cloth and gilt, $1.00 
COLOR IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 

A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS. — BY MILTON BRADLEY. 

This book sets forth the peculiarities of the Bradley Scheme for 
Teaching Color to tlie pupils of our common schools and exphiins the 
use of the Maxwell Disks and Color Wheel. "Color in the Si-hool- 
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and white, comprising over 100 colors. 

Price, in cloth and gilt, $1.00 

CLAY MODELING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 

BY ELLEN STEPHENS HILDRETH. 

This book is a manual of instruction in Clay Modeling for the 
Kinilergiirten and School, based on the curved solids. There has long 
been a\leni:ind among kindeigartners and primary school teachers 
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Ilildreth has the undoubted sanction of use and experience. With it 
any one can learn to model and any child can learn to see form. 
Tlie directions are so plain that they can be followed with little 
ditliculty. The book has numerous illustrations and 75 pjiges. 

Price, paper covers, $0.25 
HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 

This book pays special attention to Langunge Work, Form Study, 
Teaching of Color and Number Work, and takes up the various other 
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studies are very plain and easily understood. The book contains 
19 chapters and"l30 pages. Price, in paper covers, $0.25 

PARADISE OF CHILDHOOD. 

REVISED EDITION.— BY EDWARD WIEBE. 

This work is an exponent of pure Fi-oebeliau Kindergartning, and 
forms the best possible foundations for the building of a complete 
Kindergarten education. The revised edition contains all the matter 
formerly used in "A Hand Book for the Kindei-garten,'* without any 
inci 
yei 
lithographic plates. 



irmerly used in "'A nana isooK lor tne i\mueigarieu, wiinout any 
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BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 

PUBLISHED BY MILTON BRADLEY CO. 



IN THE CHILD-S WORLD. 

BY EMILIE POULSSON.— ILLUSTRATED BY L. J. BRIDGMAN. 



This isacliarming book of Moruinj; Talks and Stories for the Kin- 
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400 pages. Price, in cloth and gilt, #2.00 

COLOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

BY MILTON BRADLEY. 

This little book is intended to be a Manual of the Theory of Color 
and the Practical Use of Color Material in the Kindergarten. It con- 
tains the latest information to be obtained on this subject and is 
illustrated in a way that cannot fail to be helpful to all who are in- 
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PAPER AND SCISSORS IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 

BY EMILY A. WEAVER. 

This book is planned to give a practical and systematic course in 
paper folding and cutting for all grades in the public and private 
schools. The work begins with the simple foldings adapted to the 
first year in school and enlarges its scope to give cutting suited to 
higher-grade work. With over 200 illustrations. 

Price, paper covers, .fO.25 

A CHRISTMAS FESTIVAL SEEVICE. 

ARRANGED BY NORA A. SMITH. 

This book is for the Home, Kindergarten and Sunday School and is 
made up of such songs and carols as have been found popular with 
little children. The melodies are simple and easily learned, although 
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Price, paper, $0.25 

THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE SCHOOL. ' 

BY FOUR ACTIVE WORKERS. 

This book comprises five papers, as follows : Froebel— The Man and 
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in the Primary School, by Mrs. A. H. Putnam ; The Connection of the 
I Kindergarten with the School, by Mrs.TVfary H. Peabody. l-'iO page^ 
I* " Price, paper covers. .f0..50; cloth, .$0.7» 



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A Monthly Magazine Devoted to Elementary Education. 

PUBLISHED BY 

MILTON BRADLEY CO., Springfield, Mass. 



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